Gender differences in leisure motivation, participation, and constraints for South African adolescents
Open Access
- Author:
- Gleeson, Sarah Laree
- Graduate Program:
- Recreation, Park and Tourism Management
- Degree:
- Master of Science
- Document Type:
- Master Thesis
- Date of Defense:
- March 28, 2008
- Committee Members:
- Linda L Caldwell, Thesis Advisor/Co-Advisor
Edward Smith, Thesis Advisor/Co-Advisor
Careen M Yarnal, Thesis Advisor/Co-Advisor - Keywords:
- Leisure motivation
South Africa
Adolescents
Leisure
Leisure constraints - Abstract:
- Adolescence is an important developmental period and the leisure context is one that is particularly salient for adolescent development. However, there is currently a lack of research on adolescents from developing countries and the leisure experiences of this specific group. In particular, adolescents from South Africa face a number of obstacles, such as high rates of HIV/AIDS and seriously under-resourced neighborhoods, that can further impede their development. HealthWise, a preventive intervention program designed to increase positive use of free and leisure time, whilst also reducing substance use and engagement in risky behavior, has been successfully implemented in Mitchell's Plain, South Africa. Although the program appeared to be successful, the program developers acknowledged that some components warranted further attention. Therefore, focus groups were established to obtain more information on the free time experience for these adolescents. This study utilized a mixed methods approach, including data from the focus groups and survey data from the larger HealthWise project, to obtain greater insight into the free time experience for adolescents from this area. In particular, this study addressed leisure motivation, participation, and constraints and the influence of both gender and the context on these variables. Two research assistants conducted a total of nineteen focus groups but only those from HealthWise schools were included in this study: 8th and 10th grade females (eight groups, n = 62), and 8th and 10th grade males (seven groups, n = 52). The quantitative sample consisted of 941 students from schools in Mitchell's Plain: 501 8th grade students and 440 10th grade students. There were a greater number of females (51.9%, n = 260) than males (48.1%, n = 241) in the 8th grade. This was also the case for the 10th grade, with a higher number of females (54.8%, n = 241) than males (45.2%, n = 199). Analysis of the qualitative data showed that intrinsic motivations were the most frequently mentioned reasons for participation by both females and males, indicating that the free time experience was predominantly leisure-like for these adolescents. The most frequently discussed activity category was sports and physical activities and this was the case for both females and males. Males tended to discuss sports and physical activities more frequently than females and this difference was particularly evident in quantitative data, which indicated that there were inconsistencies between the two methods. Discrepancies between the two forms of data also emerged with other constructs. First, males reported higher levels of introjected motivation compared to females in the quantitative data but this trend was not evident in the focus groups. On the other hand, analysis of the sub-categories demonstrated gender differences: Males frequently reported participation to achieve social status, while females frequently discussed participation in order to conform to others' wishes. Amotivation was another area where the two data forms did not match; both groups discussed this construct equally in the focus groups but males reported higher levels in the quantitative data. This difference was ascribed to the category, "inherent to one's gender" (e.g., "It's just what boys do"), where males mentioned this as a reason for participation more often compared to females. However, there were instances where both forms of data matched. Specifically, intrinsic motivation was more important to females than males, identified motivation was equally important to both genders, and extrinsic motivation was more important to males than females. However, the qualitative data did provide further insight into gender differences in intrinsic motivation: Females talked about social/relatedness reasons more frequently than males. Males, however, tended to talk about challenge more often than females. The motivation model applied to these data, the Self-Determination Theory, was developed in the West and, overall, appeared to be applicable in this context. Yet, it is also important to note that neither females nor males discussed autonomy as a motivation for participation in free time activities. Given this finding, it was expected that gender differences in constraints, or more specifically, parents as a constraint, would emerge from either the qualitative or the quantitative data. However, this was not the case. Overall, the constraints discussed appeared to follow a constraints model commonly utilized in Western research. However, closer analysis demonstrated that contextual factors influenced the salience of certain constraints. In particular, safety was a primary concern for adolescents in this area but this was more evident for females. Gender emerged as an underlying but extremely influential variable in this context: Females were unable to participate in "boy's sports" because of general social disapproval and a lack of resources. Participation in certain activities was also seen as being inappropriate for males because of gender and many participants did not want to be called "moffy" (gay). In sum, gender played a vital role in the free time experience of adolescents from Mitchell's Plain, South Africa. This study identified a number of ways that the HealthWise curriculum can be modified to better meet their needs. Moreover, this study also contributes to the literature by demonstrating that, overall, models from the West are applicable to these adolescents but that there are some important differences. This suggests that care needs to be taken when applying such models to a different context. Further research on adolescents from developing countries is needed to ensure that youth worldwide have opportunities to engage in developmentally beneficial free time activities.