AN ANALYSIS OF THE CAUSES OF SHADOW EDUCATION IN THE ERA OF THE SCHOOLED SOCIETY
Open Access
- Author:
- Kim, Hyung-kee
- Graduate Program:
- Educational Theory and Policy
- Degree:
- Doctor of Philosophy
- Document Type:
- Dissertation
- Date of Defense:
- August 28, 2013
- Committee Members:
- David P Baker, Dissertation Advisor/Co-Advisor
David P Baker, Committee Chair/Co-Chair
Soo Yong Byun, Committee Member
Roger C Shouse, Committee Member
Edgar Paul Yoder, Committee Member - Keywords:
- Shadow education
private tutoring
hakwon
formal schooling
formal education
public school
public schools
afterschool class
afterschool programs
NCLB
Baker
Bray
Institution
supplementary institution
ritual
parental satisfaction
enrichment motive
enrichment strategy
remedial motive
remedial strategy
out of school lesson
out-of-school lesson
out of school class
out-of-school class
ESCS
achievements
achievement score
SES
private internal rate
IRR
wage premium
return of educational investment
conflict theory
status competition
higher education expansion
human capital theory
functionalism
neo-institutionalism
Schofer and Meyer
Meyer
the expansion of higher education
Barro-Lee
GDP per capita
public social expenditure
welfare
welfare state
high-stakes testing
high-stakes test
school quality
quality of schooling
public educational expenditure
higher education enrollment - Abstract:
- The aim of this study is to examine whether the expansion of higher education across countries is associated with the growth of shadow education as a function of families’ efforts to ensure attainment of educational opportunities. To address this research objective, this study samples approximately 163,000 students, nested in 21 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, who took the 2009 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). This study employs multilevel logistic regression in order to investigate the research question. An analysis of whether the relationship between the expansion of higher education and the use of shadow education is substantial after controlling for national- and individual-level variables follows. The current study found a significant, positive relationship between the expansion of higher education and shadow education use in academic subjects for 21 countries in terms of the average growth rate of the population with higher education between 1955 and 2005 (AGR). The relationship was substantial even after controlling for national- and individual-level variables. This means that a student in a country with a high AGR was more likely to participate in shadow education than a student in a country with low AGR. When higher education was institutionalized in terms of AGR, shadow education use increased as a supplementary tool to achieve academic success in public education. This study also supports previous findings that a female student from a family with high socioeconomic status (SES) was more likely to participate in shadow education than a male student from a family with low SES. The findings show that while high-stakes testing did not have a substantial relationship with shadow education use in analyses with 21 and 20 countries, public education expenditure was negatively associated with shadow education use in the analysis with 20 countries. Further, the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and the relative income between high school and college graduates did not have significant relationships with shadow education use in the analyses with 21 and 20 countries, respectively. Public social expenditure was negatively associated with shadow education use for 20 countries. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that economic and social benefits are not likely to be determinants of shadow education, while the institutionalization of higher education in terms of AGR is related with shadow education use. In other words, the findings support the assertion that neo-institutionalism can explain the growth of shadow education use in parallel with the expansion of higher education across 21 OECD countries, although the functionalism, human capitalism, and competitive theory perspectives seemed to explain the relationship. This study contributes to the research literature by expanding the empirical understanding and body of evidence for the relationship between shadow education use and the expansion of higher education and the characteristics of shadow education. In the present era of mass shadow education, shadow education is rapidly becoming a salient focus of education policy around the globe. This research can help policymakers better prepare relevant policy measures for increasing shadow education use in order to supplement academic deficits, particularly for low-achieving students from families with low SES.